THE EFFECT OF CHILD ABUSE ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENT

CHAPTER ONE

1.1     BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Child abuse survivors may demonstrate certain characteristics in adulthood that can impede their ability to function in everyday life and to maintain good, healthy relationships with others. It should be noted, however, that each child abuse survivor is an individual, and may manifest some characteristics but not others. The differences among child abuse survivors are due to a number of things, including genetics, social environment and whether or not the survivor was able to receive therapy and support in dealing with his condition. Another aspect that can have a significant impact on the characteristics of survivors is the type and severity of abuse they experienced while growing up.

        Victims of various types of abuse may demonstrate symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and may suffer from both anxiety and depression. Child abuse survivors may resort to a variety of coping mechanisms to help them manage their feelings and achieve some type of normal functioning. For example, a child abuse survivor may abuse drugs or alcohol as a way of “numbing” himself against unpleasant memories and psychic pain. He may also have difficulty maintaining close and trusting relationships with other people. In addition, mental health problems combined with impairments in socialization may make it difficult for some child abuse survivors to hold gainful employment.

       However, different types of child abuse can produce different long-lasting symptoms in survivors. In some cases, child abuse survivors still bear physical symptoms of both physical and sexual child abuse. For many survivors, this damage can contribute to emotional anguish and make it difficult for the victim to achieve closure. Sexual child abuse survivors may have difficulty establishing appropriate boundaries with others in sexual and romantic relationships. The survivor may either act out in a promiscuous manner or be overly compliant with a sexual partner regardless of the victim's own needs and desires. Alternatively, the victim may develop an abhorrence of physical contact and sexual behavior. Victims of mental child abuse may develop defense mechanisms that can significantly impede their ability to interact with others. These defense mechanisms may include becoming overly submissive or, alternatively, aggressive in their relationships. These victims may also find themselves keeping others at a distance through a lack of trust. Alternatively, these victims may also find themselves acting in a way that makes them easy targets for exploiters and abusers. As these victims may have difficulty feeling comfortable with relationships that are not abusive, they may either seek out or endure abusive relationships in adulthood. Sexual abuse is a legal concept that describes unwanted or illegal sexual contact. Depending on applicable laws, the term may be synonymous with, or separate from, sexual assault. Sexual abuse definitions may include acts that may be consensual but illegal, coerced sexual contact occurring under physical or psychological threat, or other types of unwanted contact between the abuser and victim.  If unwanted or illegal penetration occurs, the situation often falls under rape or assault laws, rather than abuse laws. Abuse codes sometimes deal only with violations that exclude actual sexual penetration, such as unwanted or illegal touches, or illegal exposure to pornography.

     Again, sexual abuse laws often deal with the illegal sexual treatment of a minor or child. Abuse may occur between an adult and child, or between two minors. Consent is typically not a factor in child sex abuse cases, as a minor typically is not granted the right of consent. Abuse laws may also protect those who are over the age of consent but judged to be mentally incompetent. Those convicted of sexual abuse crimes may be sentenced to jail time, psychological counseling, and restitution penalties. Additionally, some regions have laws governing sex offenders even after jail time is served. In some areas, a person convicted of a sexual crime such as abuse may have to register permanently as an offender. Registered offenders may be prohibited from living near schools or daycare facilities, working for school systems, and may have their address and criminal record listed in a public database.

        According to statistics, most sexual abuse crimes occur between family members or are perpetrated by an authority figure such as a teacher or babysitter. Since many victims are under psychological or physical threat, reporting and prosecution of abuse is often difficult.

      Many regions also have accessory abuse laws, meaning that any person with knowledge of abuse who does not report it may be subject to criminal charges and civil lawsuits. Sexual abuse can also occur between spouses or romantic partners, and may be considered a form of domestic abuse. For centuries, marriage or cohabitation gave a male partner total sexual rights to the female, including laws that affirmed that rape or sexual abuse could not occur between spouses. In modern times, many legal systems have amended this concept to say that unwanted sexual contact is a crime even between people who are sexually involved. Many psychologists suggest that abuse of a sexual nature can be severely traumatic to victims, often resulting in serious psychological issues that may require extensive treatment to manage or overcome. Studies suggest that many perpetrators of sexual crimes have been victims of similar crimes in childhood. The importance of careful attention to possible signs of abuse is considered by many experts to be a vital step both in stopping current abuse and preventing future violations.

According to the united Nation (UN) standard, child abuse is a condition of causing or permitting to occur, any form of offensive or harmful contact on the body of the child, such a contact incorporated any form of interaction, exchange or communication that brings shame, embarrassment, fear or disgrace to the child.

This therefore, underscores the need to treat the child with dignity and as an entity who when his feeling and emotional disposition are unaffectionate tempered with, may degenerate into crisis.

However, a child is abuse if a recent act or failure to act on the part of a exploitation or any act or failure to act which involves imminent risk of serious harm (Khatric 2004). Child abuse refers simply to the maltreatment of the child, hardly does a day pass by without a news report of a child who has been maltreated, battered, sexually harassed, neglected or abandoned by people who were suppose to look after them. Child abuse in Nigeria has a kind of institutionalized posture not until recently, when many writers, commentators and scholars have drawn the attention of the government and the general public to the incidence of child abuse. The persistence of child abuse has been attributed to some conditions that seems inevitable, and these conditions make families to fail in their duty to the child which include to ensure growth, to give right scope for emotional development and to preserve the art of parenthood as well as to teach behavior. With the alteration of society by rapid socio-economic and political changes various forms of child abuse have been identified, particularly in the rural areas such as in Biase Local Government Area, where there is increase in child labour and exploitation of children.    

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THE EFFECT OF INVENTORY VALUATION ON THE PROFITABILITY OF AN ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background of the study

Inventory is the total amount of goods and/or materials contained in a store or factory at any given time.  Store owners need to know the precise number of items on their shelves and storage areas in order to place orders or control losses.  Factory managers need to know how many units of their products are available for customer orders.  Restaurants need to order more food based on their current supplies and menu needs. 

       The word 'inventory' can refer to both the total amount of goods and the act of counting them.  Many companies take an inventory of their supplies on a regular basis in order to avoid running out of popular items.  Others take an inventory to insure the number of items ordered matches the actual number of items counted physically.  Shortages or overages after an inventory can indicate a problem with theft (called 'shrinkage' in retail circles) or inaccurate accounting practices.

         Companies also take an inventory every quarter in order to generate numbers for financial reports and tax records.  Ideally, most companies want to have just enough inventories to meet current orders.  Having too many products languishing in a warehouse can make a company look less appealing to investors and potential customers.  Quite often a company will offer significant discounts if the inventory numbers are high and sales are low.  This is commonly seen in new car dealerships as the manufacturers release the next year's models before the current vehicles on the lot have been sold.  Furniture companies may also offer 'inventory reduction sales' in order to clear out their showrooms for newer merchandise.

        However, an inventory valuation is a statement which provides information about the value of goods held in inventory. Goods in inventory can make up a substantial portion of a company's equity and there is therefore a great deal of interest in the total value of a company's inventory. This information is reported in financial statements which can be used internally and externally for a variety of tasks related to accounting, valuing the company as a whole, and making business decisions.

       There are a number of ways to perform an inventory valuation and different approaches to maintaining records about inventory. One method is to record sales and movement of inventory as they occur. For example, when a book sells a copy of a dictionary, it would record the fact that the inventory was short one dictionary while also noting the amount of the sale. This is called perpetual recording, because the inventory numbers are constantly being updated. One advantage to this system is that it provides real time data which can be reviewed at any time and used for everything from inventory valuation to ordering new products to replace things that are selling out. Another method is periodic. In this case, sales are recorded at the time they take place but the change to inventory is not. At the end of a set period, the inventory is manually counted and recorded. One reason why it is important to know which method of inventory valuation to use is because prices shift over time. The difference in accounting methods can change the inventory valuation, depending on which method was used.

       An inventory manager controls the goods, materials, products or parts for a company. The inventory may be for in-house use or consist of goods sold or rented to customers. The manager of inventory normally works in conjunction with other departments and is frequently in charge of one or more inventory clerk’s efficient inventory control is normally crucial to a company’s success. The inventory manager is customarily responsible for keeping track of inventory levels and ordering additional merchandise as needed to meet the needs of her company or its customers. Her assessment of current needs and ability to predict future requirements are commonly imperative to her effective control of the inventory.

         Depending on the volume of inventory and the nature of the business, an inventory manager may choose different methods to keep track of stock. Some businesses that deal in large volumes of components and parts regularly conduct cycle counts. This practice requires different parts of the inventory to be counted to make sure all parts are inventoried at least once in a specified period, normally six months or a year. Items that are more popular are counted more frequently than slower moving ones, with a handful of items being inventoried every day. In an environment where the inventory is relatively small or the demands on it vary considerably and often, the inventory manager customarily monitors it manually or through a computerized inventory tracking system. She usually has a specific inventory level for each part or product in stock at which she is alerted to reorder. A system that tracks back orders and returns is usually integrated into the mainframe of the program.

        To guarantee the largest profit margins are maintained and ensure there are no interruptions in production or sales, an inventory manager typically tracks the costs of storing slow-moving inventory. She regularly compares it to the cost of ordering goods on an as-needed basis. If the latter choice proves to be more profitable, the manager commonly adjusts her inventory ordering and storage systems to increase revenues. Success in this position normally requires excellent attention to detail and exemplary organizational skills. The ability to apply analytically skills to inventory control is generally considered an asset for an inventory manager.

THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS CHAPTER 1-5 #4000 ONLY

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ACCOUNT NO: 3034851408

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